Additive manufacturing (AM), partly due to its compatibility with computer-aided design (CAD) and fabrication of intricate shapes, is an emerging production process. Postprocessing, such as machining, is particularly necessary for metal AM due to the lack of surface quality for as-built parts being a problem when using as a production process. In this paper, a predictive model for cutting forces has been developed by using artificial neural networks (ANNs). The effect of tool path and cutting condition, including cutting speed, feed rate, machining allowance, and scallop height, on the generated force during machining of spherical components such as prosthetic acetabular shell was investigated. Also, different annealing processes like stress relieving, mill annealing and β annealing have been carried out on the samples to better understand the effect of brittleness, strength, and hardness on machining. The results of this study showed that ANN can accurately apply to model cutting force when using ball nose cutters. Scallop height has the highest impact on cutting forces followed by spindle speed, finishing allowance, heat treatment/annealing temperature, tool path, and feed rate. The results illustrate that using linear tool path and increasing annealing temperature can result in lower cutting force. Higher cutting force was observed with greater scallop height and feed rate while for higher finishing allowance, cutting forces decreased. For spindle speed, the trend of cutting force was increasing up to a critical point and then decreasing due to thermal softening.
Issue Section:
Research Papers
References
1.
Gibson
, I.
, Rosen
, D. W.
, and Stucker
, B.
, 2015
, Additive Manufacturing Technologies
, Springer
, New York
.2.
Bourell
, D. L.
, 2016
, “Perspectives on Additive Manufacturing
,” Annu. Rev. Mater. Res.
, 46
(1
), pp. 1
–18
.3.
Safronov
, V.
, Khmyrov
, R.
, Kotoban
, D.
, and Gusarov
, A.
, 2016
, “Distortions and Residual Stresses at Layer-by-Layer Additive Manufacturing by Fusion
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 139
(3
), p. 031017
.4.
O'Donnell
, J.
, Kim
, M.
, and Yoon
, H.-S.
, 2016
, “A Review on Electromechanical Devices Fabricated by Additive Manufacturing
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 139
(1
), p. 010801
.5.
Laureijs
, R. E.
, Roca
, J. B.
, Narra
, S. P.
, Montgomery
, C.
, Beuth
, J. L.
, and Fuchs
, E. R.
, 2017
, “Metal Additive Manufacturing: Cost Competitive Beyond Low Volumes
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 139
(8
), p. 081010
.6.
Chen
, C.
, Shen
, Y.
, and Tsai
, H.-L.
, 2016
, “A Foil-Based Additive Manufacturing Technology for Metal Parts
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 139
(2
), p. 024501
.7.
Song
, B.
, Dong
, S.
, Coddet
, P.
, Liao
, H.
, and Coddet
, C.
, 2012
, “Fabrication and Microstructure Characterization of Selective Laser‐Melted FeAl Intermetallic Parts
,” Surf. Coat. Technol.
, 206
(22
), pp. 4704
–4709
.8.
Song
, B.
, Dong
, S.
, and Coddet
, C.
, 2014
, “Rapid In Situ Fabrication of Fe/SiC Bulk Nanocomposites by Selective Laser Melting Directly From a Mixed Powder of Microsized Fe and SiC
,” Scr. Mater.
, 75
, pp. 90
–93
.9.
Subrahmanyam
, K.
, San
, W. Y.
, Soon
, H. G.
, and Sheng
, H.
, 2010
, “Cutting Force Prediction for Ball Nose Milling of Inclined Surface
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 48
(1–4
), pp. 23
–32
.10.
Altintas
, Y.
, 2001
, “Analytical Prediction of Three Dimensional Chatter Stability in Milling
,” JSME Int. J. Ser. C Mech. Syst., Mach. Elem. Manuf.
, 44
(3
), pp. 717
–723
.11.
Altintas
, Y.
, 2012
, Manufacturing Automation: Metal Cutting Mechanics, Machine Tool Vibrations, and CNC Design
, Cambridge University Press
, New York
.12.
Altıntas
, Y.
, and Lee
, P.
, 1998
, “Mechanics and Dynamics of Ball End Milling
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 120
(4
), pp. 684
–692
.13.
Engin
, S.
, and Altintas
, Y.
, 1999
, “Generalized Modeling of Milling Mechanics and Dynamics—Part I: Helical End Mills
,” Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. Manuf. Eng. Div. (MED)
, 10
, pp. 345
–352
.http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.506.3855&rep=rep1&type=pdf14.
Tunç
, L. T.
, Ozkirimli
, O. M.
, and Budak
, E.
, 2016
, “Machining Strategy Development and Parameter Selection in 5-Axis Milling Based on Process Simulations
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 85
(5–8), pp. 1483–1500.15.
Gradišek
, J.
, Kalveram
, M.
, and Weinert
, K.
, 2004
, “Mechanistic Identification of Specific Force Coefficients for a General End Mill
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 44
(4
), pp. 401
–414
.16.
Ng
, E.-G.
, Lee
, D.
, Sharman
, A.
, Dewes
, R.
, Aspinwall
, D.
, and Vigneau
, J.
, 2000
, “High Speed Ball Nose End Milling of Inconel 718
,” CIRP Ann.-Manuf. Technol.
, 49
(1
), pp. 41
–46
.17.
Neto
, H. K.
, Diniz
, A. E.
, and Pederiva
, R.
, 2016
, “Influence of Tooth Passing Frequency, Feed Direction, and Tool Overhang on the Surface Roughness of Curved Surfaces of Hardened Steel
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 82
(1–4
), pp. 753
–764
.18.
Heisel
, C.
, Kleinhans
, J. A.
, Menge
, M.
, and Kretzer
, J. P.
, 2009
, “Ten Different Hip Resurfacing Systems: Biomechanical Analysis of Design and Material Properties
,” Int. Orthop.
, 33
(4
), pp. 939
–943
.19.
Wang
, S.
, Geng
, L.
, Zhang
, Y.
, Liu
, K.
, and Ng
, T.
, 2015
, “Cutting Force Prediction for Five-Axis Ball-End Milling Considering Cutter Vibrations and Run-out
,” Int. J. Mech. Sci.
, 96–97
, pp. 206
–215
.20.
Ng
, E. G.
, Lee
, D. W.
, Dewes
, R. C.
, and Aspinwall
, D. K.
, 2000
, “Experimental Evaluation of Cutter Orientation When Ball Nose End Milling Inconel 718™
,” J. Manuf. Process.
, 2
(2
), pp. 108
–115
.21.
Scandiffio
, I.
, Diniz
, A. E.
, and de Souza
, A. F.
, 2015
, “Evaluating Surface Roughness, Tool Life, and Machining Force When Milling Free-Form Shapes on Hardened AISI D6 Steel
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 82
(9–12), pp. 2075–2086.22.
Abrari
, F.
, Elbestawi
, M. A.
, and Spence
, A. D.
, 1998
, “On the Dynamics of Ball End Milling: Modeling of Cutting Forces and Stability Analysis
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 38
(3
), pp. 215
–237
.23.
Amir Mahyar Khorasani
, I. G.
, Moshe
, G.
, and Guy
, L.
, 2016
, “Production of Ti–6Al–4V Acetabular Shell Using Selective Laser Melting: Possible Limitations in Fabrication
,” Rapid Prototyping J.
, 23
(2), pp. 295–304.http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/RPJ-11-2015-015924.
Amir Mahyar Khorasani
, I. G.
, 2016
, “Moshe Goldberg, Guy Littlefair, on the Role of Different Annealing Heat Treatments on Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Selective Laser Melted and Conventional Wrought Ti–6Al–4V
,” Rapid Prototyping J.
, 23
(2), pp. 217–226.25.
Khorasani
, A. M.
, Yazdi
, M. R. S.
, and Safizadeh
, M. S.
, 2012
, “Analysis of Machining Parameters Effects on Surface Roughness: A Review
,” Int. J. Comput. Mater. Sci. Surf. Eng.
, 5
(1
), pp. 68
–84
.https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJCMSSE.2012.04905526.
Lee
, P.
, and Altintaş
, Y.
, 1996
, “Prediction of Ball-End Milling Forces From Orthogonal Cutting Data
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 36
(9
), pp. 1059
–1072
.27.
Joshi
, V. A.
, 2006
, Titanium Alloys: An Atlas of Structures and Fracture Features
, CRC Press
, Boca Raton, FL
.28.
ASTM International
, 2010
, ASM Hanbooks Online Volume 2: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous and Specialpurpose Materials, Titanium and Titanium Alloy Castings Product Application
, Vol. 2
, ASTM International
, West Conshohocken, PA
.29.
Mark
, A.
, Xu
, Y.
, and Gou
, J.
, 2016
, “Deposition Thickness Modeling and Parameter Identification for a Spray-Assisted Vacuum Filtration Process in Additive Manufacturing
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 139
(4
), p. 041002
.30.
Wolcott
, P. J.
, Pawlowski
, C.
, Headings
, L. M.
, and Dapino
, M. J.
, 2017
, “Seam Welding of Aluminum Sheet Using Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing System
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 139
(1
), p. 011010
.31.
Korani
, M.
, and Goshe
, R.
, 2016
, “Tool Selection in Machinng of Selective Laser Melting Based on Artificial Neural Networks and Regression Models
,” J. Manuf. Technol.
, 14
(6
), pp. 60
–69
.32.
Korani
, M.
, and Lotfi
, A.
, 2015
, “Heat Treatment of Titanium Alloys Produced by Selective Laser Melting
,” J. Manuf. Technol.
, 13
(2
), pp. 70
–76
.33.
Khorasani
, A.
, and Soleymani Yazdi
, M. R.
, 2015
, “Development of a Dynamic Surface Roughness Monitoring System Based on Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) in Milling Operation
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 93
(1–4), pp. 141–151.34.
Khorasani
, A. M.
, Gibson, I., Goldberg, M., Doeven, E. H., and Littlefair, G., 2016
, “Investigation on the Effect of Cutting Fluid Pressure on Surface Quality Measurement in High Speed Thread Milling of Brass Alloy (C3600) and Aluminium Alloy (5083)
,” Measurement
, 82
, pp. 55
–63
.35.
Khorasani
, A. M.
, Soleymani Yazdi
, M. R.
, and Safizadeh
, M. S.
, 2011
, “Tool Life Prediction in Face Milling Machiningof 7075 Al by Using Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Taguchi Design of Experiment (DOE)
,” Int. J. Eng. Technol.
, 3
(1
), p. 30
.36.
Ezugwu
, E.
, and Wang
, Z.
, 1997
, “Titanium Alloys and Their Machinability—A Review
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 68
(3
), pp. 262
–274
.37.
Li
, C.
, Zhang
, X.-Y.
, Li
, Z.-Y.
, and Zhou
, K.-C.
, 2013
, “Hot Deformation of Ti–5Al–5Mo–5 V–1Cr–1Fe Near β Titanium Alloys Containing Thin and Thick Lamellar α Phase
,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A
, 573
, pp. 75
–83
.38.
Khorasani
, A. M.
, Gibson
, I.
, Chegini
, N. G.
, Goldberg
, M.
, Ghasemi
, A. H.
, and Littlefair
, G.
, 2016
, “An Improved Static Model for Tool Deflection in Machining of Ti–6Al–4V Acetabular Shell Produced by Selective Laser Melting
,” Measurement
, 92
, pp. 534
–544
.39.
Pramanik
, A.
, Islam
, M. N.
, Basak
, A.
, and Littlefair
, G.
, 2013
, “Machining and Tool Wear Mechanisms During Machining Titanium Alloys
,” Adv. Mater. Res.
, 651
, pp. 338
–343
.40.
Wang
, Z.
, Wong
, Y.
, and Rahman
, M.
, 2005
, “High-Speed Milling of Titanium Alloys Using Binderless CBN Tools
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 45
(1
), pp. 105
–114
.41.
Lopez de Lacalle
, L.
, Angulo
, C.
, Lamikiz
, A.
, and Sánchez
, J. A.
, 2006
, “Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Spray Cutting Fluids in High Speed Milling
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 172
(1
), pp. 11
–15
.42.
Özel
, T.
, and Zeren
, E.
, 2007
, “Finite Element Modeling the Influence of Edge Roundness on the Stress and Temperature Fields Induced by High-Speed Machining
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 35
(3–4
), pp. 255
–267
.43.
Zhang
, J.
, Liu
, Z.
, and Du
, J.
, 2015
, “Modelling and Prediction of Tool-Chip Interface Temperature in Hard Machining of H13 Steel With PVD Coated Tools
,” Int. J. Mach. Machinabil. Mater.
, 17
(5
), pp. 381
–396
.44.
Dogu
, Y.
, Aslan
, E.
, and Camuscu
, N.
, 2006
, “A Numerical Model to Determine Temperature Distribution in Orthogonal Metal Cutting
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 171
(1
), pp. 1
–9
.45.
Korkut
, I.
, Acır
, A.
, and Boy
, M.
, 2011
, “Application of Regression and Artificial Neural Network Analysis in Modelling of Tool–Chip Interface Temperature in Machining
,” Expert Syst. Appl.
, 38
(9
), pp. 11651
–11656
.46.
Korkut
, I.
, Boy
, M.
, Karacan
, I.
, and Seker
, U.
, 2007
, “Investigation of Chip-Back Temperature During Machining Depending on Cutting Parameters
,” Mater. Des.
, 28
(8
), pp. 2329
–2335
.47.
Saffar
, R. J.
, and Razfar
, M.
, 2010
, “Simulation of End Milling Operation for Predicting Cutting Forces to Minimize Tool Deflection by Genetic Algorithm
,” Mach. Sci. Technol.
, 14
(1
), pp. 81
–101
.48.
Ratchev
, S.
, Govender
, E.
, Nikov
, S.
, Phuah
, K.
, and Tsiklos
, G.
, 2003
, “Force and Deflection Modelling in Milling of Low-Rigidity Complex Parts
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 143–144
, pp. 796
–801
.49.
Ong
, T.
, and Hinds
, B.
, 2003
, “The Application of Tool Deflection Knowledge in Process Planning to Meet Geometric Tolerances
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 43
(7
), pp. 731
–737
.50.
López de Lacalle
, L.
, Lamikiz
, A.
, Sánchez
, J. A.
, and Salgado
, M. A.
, 2007
, “Toolpath Selection Based on the Minimum Deflection Cutting Forces in the Programming of Complex Surfaces Milling
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 47
(2
), pp. 388
–400
.51.
Jalili Saffar
, R.
, Razfar
, M. R.
, Zarei
, O.
, and Ghassemieh
, E.
, 2008
, “Simulation of Three-Dimension Cutting Force and Tool Deflection in the End Milling Operation Based on Finite Element Method
,” Simul. Modell. Pract. Theory
, 16
(10
), pp. 1677
–1688
.52.
Dépincé
, P.
, and Hascoet
, J.-Y.
, 2006
, “Active Integration of Tool Deflection Effects in End Milling—Part 1: Prediction of Milled Surfaces
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 46
(9
), pp. 937
–944
.53.
Ryu
, S. H.
, Lee
, H. S.
, and Chu
, C. N.
, 2003
, “The Form Error Prediction in Side Wall Machining Considering Tool Deflection
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 43
(14
), pp. 1405
–1411
.54.
Ke
, Y.-L.
, Dong
, H.-Y.
, Liu
, G.
, and Zhang
, M.
, 2009
, “Use of Nitrogen Gas in High-Speed Milling of Ti–6Al–4V
,” Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China
, 19
(3
), pp. 530
–534
.55.
Pramanik
, A.
, 2014
, “Problems and Solutions in Machining of Titanium Alloys
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 70
(5–8
), pp. 919
–928
.56.
Nabhani
, F.
, 2001
, “Machining of Aerospace Titanium Alloys
,” Rob. Comput. Integr. Manuf.
, 17
(1–2
), pp. 99
–106
.57.
Machado
, A.
, and Wallbank
, J.
, 1990
, “Machining of Titanium and Its Alloys—A Review
,” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part B: J. Eng. Manuf.
, 204
(1
), pp. 53
–60
.58.
Attar
, H.
, Calin
, M.
, Zhang
, L. C.
, Scudino
, S.
, and Eckert
, J.
, 2014
, “Manufacture by Selective Laser Melting and Mechanical Behavior of Commercially Pure Titanium
,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A
, 593
, pp. 170
–177
.59.
Murr
, L.
, Quinones
, S. A.
, Gaytan
, S. M.
, Lopez
, M. I.
, Rodela
, A.
, Martinez
, E. Y.
, Hernandez
, D. H.
, Martinez
, E.
, Medina
, F.
, and Wicker
, R. B.
, 2009
, “Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior of Ti–6Al–4V Produced by Rapid-Layer Manufacturing, for Biomedical Applications
,” J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater.
, 2
(1
), pp. 20
–32
.60.
Vrancken
, B.
, Thijs
, L.
, Kruth
, J.-P.
, and Humbeeck
, J. V.
, 2012
, “Heat Treatment of Ti6Al4V Produced by Selective Laser Melting: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties
,” J. Alloys Compd.
, 541
, pp. 177
–185
.61.
Gu
, D.
, Hagedorn
, Y.-C.
, Meiners
, W.
, Meng
, G.
, Batista
, R. J. S.
, Wissenbach
, K.
, and Poprawe
, R.
, 2012
, “Densification Behavior, Microstructure Evolution, and Wear Performance of Selective Laser Melting Processed Commercially Pure Titanium
,” Acta Mater.
, 60
(9
), pp. 3849
–3860
.62.
Weingarten
, C.
, Buchbinder
, D.
, Pirch
, N.
, Meiners
, W.
, Wissenbach
, K.
, and Poprawe
, R.
, 2015
, “Formation and Reduction of Hydrogen Porosity During Selective Laser Melting of AlSi10 Mg
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 221
, pp. 112
–120
.63.
Sieniawski
, J.
, Ziaja
, W.
, Kubiak
, K.
, and Motyka
, M.
, 2013
, “Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High Strength Two-Phase Titanium Alloys
,” Titanium Alloys-Advances in Properties Control
, InTech, Rijeka, Croatia, pp. 69
–80
.64.
Baufeld
, B.
, Brandl
, E.
, and van der Biest
, O.
, 2011
, “Wire Based Additive Layer Manufacturing: Comparison of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Ti–6Al–4V Components Fabricated by Laser-Beam Deposition and Shaped Metal Deposition
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 211
(6
), pp. 1146
–1158
.65.
Gorny
, B.
, Niendorf
, T.
, Lackmann
, J.
, Thoene
, M.
, Troester
, T.
, and Maier
, H. J.
, 2011
, “In Situ Characterization of the Deformation and Failure Behavior of Non-Stochastic Porous Structures Processed by Selective Laser Melting
,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A
, 528
(27
), pp. 7962
–7967
.66.
Baufeld
, B.
, Biest
, O.
, and Gault
, R.
, 2010
, “Additive Manufacturing of Ti–6Al–4V Components by Shaped Metal Deposition: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties
,” Mater. Des.
, 31
(1
), pp. S106
–S111
.67.
Santos
, E.
, Abe
, F.
, Kitamura
, Y.
, Osakada
, K.
, and Shiomi
, M.
, 2002
, “Mechanical Properties of Pure Titanium Models Processed by Selective Laser Melting
,” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C
, 218
(7
), pp. 180–186.https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5553/6b007b30d4a8f433957781a22734a66217ad.pdf68.
Yadroitsev
, I.
, Krakhmalev
, P.
, and Yadroitsava
, I.
, 2014
, “Selective Laser Melting of Ti6Al4V Alloy for Biomedical Applications: Temperature Monitoring and Microstructural Evolution
,” J. Alloys Compd.
, 583
, pp. 404
–409
.69.
Welsch
, G.
, Boyer
, R.
, and Collings
, E.
, 1993
, Materials Properties Handbook: Titanium Alloys
, ASM International
, Novelty, OH
.70.
Li
, X.
, Roberts
, M.
, Liu
, Y. J.
, Kang
, C. W.
, Huang
, H.
, and Sercombe
, T. B.
, 2015
, “Effect of Substrate Temperature on the Interface Bond Between Support and Substrate During Selective Laser Melting of Al–Ni–Y–Co–La Metallic Glass
,” Mater. Des.
, 65
, pp. 1–6.71.
Jovanović
, M.
, Tadić
, S.
, Zec
, S.
, Mišković
, Z.
, and Bobić
, I.
, 2006
, “The Effect of Annealing Temperatures and Cooling Rates on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Investment Cast Ti–6Al–4V Alloy
,” Mater. Des.
, 27
(3
), pp. 192
–199
.72.
Thijs
, L.
, Verhaeghe
, F.
, Craeghs
, T.
, Van Humbeeck
, J.
, and Kruth
, J.-P.
, 2010
, “A Study of the Microstructural Evolution During Selective Laser Melting of Ti–6Al–4V
,” Acta Mater.
, 58
(9
), pp. 3303
–3312
.73.
Chlebus
, E.
, Kuźnicka
, B.
, Kurzynowski
, T.
, and Dybała
, B.
, 2011
, “Microstructure and Mechanical Behaviour of Ti―6Al―7Nb Alloy Produced by Selective Laser Melting
,” Mater. Charact.
, 62
(5
), pp. 488
–495
.Copyright © 2018 by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.
